The global burden of metabolic syndrome: A review of epidemiology and clinical challenges

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a multifaceted disorder defined by a cluster of interrelated risk factors, including central obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hypertension, which together increase the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic conditions. Its prevalence has escalated to alarming levels worldwide, with considerable variation across populations due to genetic background, lifestyle patterns, and socioeconomic differences. The underlying mechanisms of MetS involve visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, and persistent low-grade inflammation, further influenced by oxidative stress, hormonal imbalances, and endothelial dysfunction. Recent studies also point to the role of genetic susceptibility, alterations in the gut microbiome, and neuroendocrine stress responses in aggravating disease progression. Lifestyle interventions such as dietary modification, increased physical activity, and weight reduction remain the cornerstone of management, while adjunctive options including bariatric surgery, pharmacological agents, nutraceuticals, probiotics, and microbial metabolites such as butyrate are emerging as promising alternatives in resistant or advanced cases. Despite significant progress in elucidating the biological basis of MetS, challenges remain in establishing uniform diagnostic criteria, ensuring timely detection, and achieving sustainable long-term outcomes. This review brings together current insights on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of MetS to provide a comprehensive understanding of the condition and identify future directions for research.